托福閱讀方法：如何解答托福閱讀否定信息類(lèi)題型
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托福閱讀方法：如何解答托福閱讀否定信息類(lèi)題型
托福閱讀否定信息題(Negative Factual Information questions (0 to 2 questions per set )怎么做?我們先來(lái)看看它的提問(wèn)方式和解答方法：
托福閱讀否定信息題提問(wèn)方式：
首先我們來(lái)介紹一下否定信息題，Negative Factual Information questions。這種題型的提問(wèn)方式一般為：
l According to the passage，which of the following is NOT true of X?
l The author’s description of X mentions all of the following EXCEPT ?
托福閱讀否定信息題解答方法：
在解答這種題目的時(shí)候首先要注意的是避免慣性思維的影響。在前面講過(guò)的所有題目當(dāng)中，或者是平時(shí)大家的做題習(xí)慣當(dāng)中，我們都是看到與原文相符或者和原文一樣的選項(xiàng)就選，但是到了這個(gè)題目，需要選擇不屬于題干內(nèi)容或者與原文相反的選項(xiàng)，這是需要注意的一點(diǎn)。
一般這種題目的定位范圍都在原文的某一個(gè)或者兩個(gè)自然段，所以第一步需要的就是根據(jù)題目大定位到某個(gè)自然段，然后根據(jù)選項(xiàng)特征對(duì)應(yīng)原文進(jìn)行選題。
托福閱讀否定信息題舉例說(shuō)明：
我們來(lái)看一個(gè)例題：
Paragraph 7： The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values， by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example， people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively， whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust， or who think that aggression is never justified， are less likely to behave aggressively.
Paragraph 8： One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings， in turn， can lead to aggressive action， but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people’s motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people oftendistort other people’s motives. For example， they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.
9. According to the cognitive approach described in paragraphs 7 and 8， all of the following may influence the decision whether to act aggressively EXCEPT a person’s
○Moral values
○Previous experiences with aggression
○Instinct to avoid aggression
○B(yǎng)eliefs about other people’s intentions
這道題目的定位范圍是兩個(gè)自然段，四個(gè)選項(xiàng)中有三個(gè)會(huì)influence the decision whether to act aggressively，有一個(gè)選項(xiàng)不會(huì)“影響一個(gè)人決定是否要表現(xiàn)的具有侵略性”，我們要選擇這個(gè)選項(xiàng)。首先，在第七自然段的第二句“Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values， by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice.”中就提到moral values，對(duì)應(yīng)A 選項(xiàng)。其次，在第八自然段中，第四句“People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people’s motives.”中提到兩個(gè)選項(xiàng)，一個(gè)是“their experiences with aggression”對(duì)應(yīng)B選項(xiàng)，另外一個(gè)是“interpretation of other people’s motives”對(duì)應(yīng)D選項(xiàng)。只有C選項(xiàng)的instinct沒(méi)有提到，這道題目選擇C選項(xiàng)。
托福閱讀背景知識(shí)：人類(lèi)的活動(dòng)和動(dòng)物的滅絕
托福閱讀真題再現(xiàn)：
人類(lèi)的活動(dòng)和動(dòng)物的滅絕
將overhunting，中間一個(gè)個(gè)科學(xué)家說(shuō)不對(duì)，其實(shí)是climate change導(dǎo)致了，講人類(lèi)人前北美很多大型動(dòng)物，但是人類(lèi)出現(xiàn)以后大型動(dòng)物都掛了，主要原因是人類(lèi)的過(guò)度捕獵。接著說(shuō)氣候也是一個(gè)潛在原因，而且一些大型動(dòng)物掛了，認(rèn)識(shí)rodent并沒(méi)有滅絕。有舉例，在人類(lèi)出現(xiàn)以后很短的時(shí)間內(nèi)動(dòng)物數(shù)量急劇下降，雖然這個(gè)事實(shí)被捕魚(yú)大豐收的情況所disguise，一個(gè)明顯的證據(jù)就是一種特殊的魚(yú)到了食物鏈底端。
新東方老師解析：
本篇文章講解了動(dòng)物的滅絕的原因。相似的話題可以參考tpo中文章mass extiction，文章的理解重點(diǎn)是要把握好解釋滅絕的原因，以及相對(duì)應(yīng)所舉的例子。按照不同的滅絕的原因梳理文章的結(jié)構(gòu)。
相應(yīng)的背景請(qǐng)參考下文：
As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average life-span of a species is 10 million years[citation needed], although this varies widely between taxa. There are a variety of causes that can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. "Just as each species is unique", write Beverly and Stephen C. Stearns, "so is each extinction ... the causes for each are varied—some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple". Most simply, any species that cannot survive and reproduce in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt.
Habitat degradation
Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl, logging, mining and some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic, or indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species.
Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness.
Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this; elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. For example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling.
Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. Global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing unwelcome competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction.
Predation, competition, and disease
In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, inter-species competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction (many people would say premature extinction) of some species, either as a new mega-predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the "overkill hypothesis", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before present), Madagascar, Hawaii (300-1000 CE), and New Zealand (1300-1500 CE), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before, and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques.
Climate change
Extinction as a result of climate change has been confirmed by fossil studies. Particularly, the extinction of amphibians during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, 305 million years ago. A 2003 review across 14 biodiversity research centers predicted that, because of climate change, 15–37% of land species would be "committed to extinction" by 2050. The ecologically rich areas that would potentially suffer the heaviest losses include the Cape Floristic Region, and the Caribbean Basin. These areas might see a doubling of present carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species.
托福閱讀背景知識(shí)：冰河時(shí)期形成原因
托福閱讀真題再現(xiàn)：
冰河時(shí)期形成原因
第一段：地球周期一直被人們觀測(cè)。但直到科學(xué)家M，才提出是地球的orbit三個(gè)因素共同發(fā)生造成的。Eccentric, tilt and orbit.。
第二段：三個(gè)理論?！竞瞄L(zhǎng)一段】
第三段：三個(gè)角度變化要好多年。周期不能解釋。
第四段：還有好多其他解釋?zhuān)腥苏f(shuō)火山，有人說(shuō)…有人說(shuō)…
老師解析：
冰期地球表面覆蓋有大規(guī)模冰川的地質(zhì)時(shí)期。又稱(chēng)為冰川時(shí)期。兩次冰期之間唯一相對(duì)溫暖時(shí)期，稱(chēng)為間冰期。地球歷史上曾發(fā)生過(guò)多次冰期，最近一次是第四紀(jì)冰期。 地球在40多億年的歷史中，曾出現(xiàn)過(guò)多次顯著降溫變冷，形成冰期。特別是在前寒武紀(jì)晚期、石炭紀(jì)至二疊紀(jì)和新生代的冰期都是持續(xù)時(shí)間很長(zhǎng)的地質(zhì)事件，通常稱(chēng)為大冰期。大冰期的時(shí)間尺度至少數(shù)百萬(wàn)年。大冰期內(nèi)又有多次大幅度的氣候冷暖交替和冰蓋規(guī)模的擴(kuò)展或退縮時(shí)期，這種擴(kuò)展和退縮時(shí)期即為冰期和間冰期。
學(xué)者們提出過(guò)種.種解釋?zhuān)两駴](méi)有得到令人感到滿意的答案。歸納起來(lái)，主要有天文學(xué)和地球物理學(xué)成因說(shuō)。
天文學(xué)成因說(shuō)
天文學(xué)成因說(shuō)主要考慮太陽(yáng)、其他行星與地球間的相互關(guān)系。①太陽(yáng)光度的周期變化影響地球的氣候。太陽(yáng)光度處于弱變化時(shí)，輻射量減少，地球變冷，乃至出現(xiàn)冰期氣候。米蘭科維奇認(rèn)為，夏半年太陽(yáng)輻射量的減少是導(dǎo)致冰期發(fā)生的可能因素。②地球黃赤交角的周期變化導(dǎo)致氣溫的變化。黃赤交角指黃道與天赤道的交角，它的變化主要受行星攝動(dòng)的影響。當(dāng)黃赤交角大時(shí)，冬夏差別增大，年平均日射率最小，使低緯地區(qū)處于寒冷時(shí)期，有利于冰川生成。
地球物理學(xué)成因說(shuō)
地球物理學(xué)成因說(shuō)影響因素較多，有大氣物理方面的，也有地理地質(zhì)方面的。①大氣透明度的影響。頻繁的火山活動(dòng)等使大氣層飽含著火山灰，透明度低，減少了太陽(yáng)輻射量，導(dǎo)致地球變冷。②構(gòu)造運(yùn)動(dòng)的影響。構(gòu)造運(yùn)動(dòng)造成陸地升降、陸塊位移、視極移動(dòng)，改變了海陸分布和環(huán)流型式，可使地球變冷。云量、蒸發(fā)和冰雪反射的反饋?zhàn)饔?，進(jìn)一步使地球變冷，促使冰期來(lái)臨。③大氣中CO2的屏蔽作用。CO2能阻止或減低地表熱量的損失。如果大氣中CO2含量增加到今天的2~3倍，則極地氣溫將上升8~9℃;如果今日大氣中的CO2含量減少55~60%，則中緯地帶氣溫將下降4~5℃。在地質(zhì)時(shí)期火山活動(dòng)和生物活動(dòng)使大氣圈中CO2含量有很大變化，當(dāng)CO2屏蔽作用減少到一定程度，則可能出現(xiàn)冰期。
托福閱讀相關(guān)背景：
An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed "glacial periods" (or alternatively "glacials" or "glaciations" or colloquially as "ice age"), and intermittent warm periods are called "interglacials".Glaciologically, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres. By this definition, we are in an interglacial period - the holocene, of the ice age that began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch, because the Greenland, Arctic, and Antarctic ice sheets still exist.
Variations in Earth's orbit (Milankovitch cycles)
The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each cycle has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other.
Past and future of daily average insolation at top of the atmosphere on the day of the summer solstice, at 65 N latitude.
There is strong evidence that the Milankovitch cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age. The present ice age is the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by ice cores that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milankovi? orbital forcing periods is so close that orbital forcing is generally accepted. The combined effects of the changing distance to the Sun, the precession of the Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of the Earth's axis redistribute the sunlight received by the Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis, which affect the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north latitude varies by as much as 22% (from 450 W/m? to 550 W/m?). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too cool to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some workers believe that the strength of the orbital forcing is too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like CO
2 may explain this mismatch.
While Milankovitch forcing predicts that cyclic changes in the Earth's orbital elements can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial–interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800,000 years, the dominant period of glacial–interglacial oscillation has been 100,000 years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's orbital eccentricity and orbitalinclination. Yet this is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovitch. During the period 3.0–0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41,000-year period of changes in Earth's obliquity (tilt of the axis). The reasons for dominance of one frequency versus another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in the Earth's climate system.
The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. Richard A. Muller, Gordon J. F. MacDonald, and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as the Earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Jose Antonio Rial.
Another worker, William Ruddiman, has suggested a model that explains the 100,000-year cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000 and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with a simple empirical multi-state model proposed by Didier Paillard. Paillard suggests that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles can be seen as jumps between three quasi-stable climate states. The jumps are induced by the orbital forcing, while in the early Pleistocene the 41,000-year glacial cycles resulted from jumps between only two climate states. A dynamical model explaining this behavior was proposed by Peter Ditlevsen. This is in support of the suggestion that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles are not due to the weak 100,000-year eccentricity cycle, but a non-linear response to mainly the 41,000-year obliquity cycle.
Changes in Earth's atmosphere
There is considerable evidence that over the very recent period of the last 100–1000 years, the sharp increases in human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels, has caused the parallel sharp and accelerating increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases which trap the sun's heat. The consensus theory of the scientific community is that the resulting greenhouse effect is a principal cause of the increase in global warming which has occurred over the same period, and a chief contributor to the accelerated melting of the remaining glaciers and polar ice. A 2012 investigation finds that dinosaurs released methane through digestion in a similar amount to humanity's current methane release, which "could have been a key factor" to the very warm climate 150 million years ago.
There is evidence that greenhouse gas levels fell at the start of ice ages and rose during the retreat of the ice sheets, but it is difficult to establish cause and effect (see the notes above on the role of weathering). Greenhouse gas levels may also have been affected by other factors which have been proposed as causes of ice ages, such as the movement of continents and volcanism.
The Snowball Earth hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late Proterozoic was ended by an increase in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and some supporters of Snowball Earth argue that it was caused by a reduction in atmospheric CO2. The hypothesis also warns of future Snowball Earths.
In 2009, further evidence was provided that changes in solar insolation provide the initial trigger for the Earth to warm after an Ice Age, with secondary factors like increases in greenhouse gases accounting for the magnitude of the change.
William Ruddiman has proposed the early anthropocene hypothesis, according to which the anthropocene era, as some people call the most recent period in the Earth's history when the activities of the human species first began to have a significant global impact on the Earth's climate and ecosystems, did not begin in the 18th century with the advent of the Industrial Era, but dates back to 8,000 years ago, due to intense farming activities of our early agrarian ancestors. It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of the Milankovitch cycles. In his overdue-glaciationhypothesis Ruddiman states that an incipient glacial would probably have begun several thousand years ago, but the arrival of that scheduled glacial was forestalled by the activities of early farmers.
At a meeting of the American Geophysical Union (December 17, 2008), scientists detailed evidence in support of the controversial idea that the introduction of large-scale rice agriculture in Asia, coupled with extensive deforestation in Europe began to alter world climate by pumping significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere over the last 1,000 years. In turn, a warmer atmosphere heated the oceans making them much less efficient storehouses of carbon dioxide and reinforcing global warming, possibly forestalling the onset of a new glacial age.
托福閱讀方法：如何解答托福閱讀否定信息類(lèi)題型相關(guān)文章：
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